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Integrating multicultural and gifted education: a curricular framework
Donna Y. FordThis article raises a number of critical questions related to multiculturalism and gifted education. In particular, the authors suggest that culturally relevant content is lacking in gifted education programs. They make the case that gifted students of color are being shortchanged by gifted education programs that lack infusion of diversity issues; these students would benefit substantially from gifted education programs that infuse multiculturalism throughout the curricula. Last, but not least, the article introduces and discusses the Ford and Harris (1999) model for infusing multiculturalism in gifted education programs.
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AS STATED THROUGHOUT this special theme issue, gifted education faces critical challenges as the nation becomes increasingly diverse. With the increasing diversity, there comes the need to change many school practices, not only in terms of increasing the representation of students of color in gifted education but also in terms of more effectively meeting the academic needs of students who are gifted and diverse. In other words, once gifted students of color are recruited (i.e., identified and placed), public schools are challenged to address the following questions: (a) How do we serve gifted minority students? (b) What are their academic needs? And (c) What are their interests?
Over the years, many scholars of gifted education (Ford, Grantham, & Harris, 1996; Ford & Harris, 1999) have stressed the importance as well as the need for infusing multicultural education into the gifted education curricula. These scholars have also suggested that these fields combined offer great promise for meeting the pedagogical, cultural, and learning needs of students of color, especially in gifted education. In this article, we further the discourse by also stressing the importance of infusing multiculturalism and culturally relevant pedagogy in gifted education. As a conceptual framework or model, we present segments of Ford and Harris' (1999) multicultural gifted education curricula.
As gifted education scholars, researchers, and practitioners, we have listened to diverse students, parents, teachers, and school counselors around the country articulate their concerns and challenges related to gifted education. Many of these concerns are associated with the lack of diversity or multiculturalism in the curricula. As a result, we have made special efforts to focus our attention on these concerns and apparent deficits in gifted education.
The absence of multiculturalism in gifted education curricula has proven to be a hindrance or inhibitor of learning for many students of color in American public schools (Ford & Harris, 1999). To continue to use curricula and educational practices that are monoculture and ethnocentric lessens the possibility of reaching students of color academically in gifted education programs. In fact, it is quite likely that these students may become ambivalent or disengaged from school in general and gifted education in particular (Flowers, Milner, & Moore, 2003; Ford, 1996; Moore, Ford, & Milner, 2005; Ogbu, 2003). Although many teachers, school counselors, and administrators recognize the importance of culturally relevant pedagogy and curricula, many are not able to infuse multiculturalism in gifted education (Ford & Harris, 1999; Milner et al., 2003). Subsequently, students of color as well as White students are shortchanged of educational experiences where they can learn about different racial and cultural groups. The overall richness of classroom experiences and interactions is highly predicated on the teacher, classroom content, and the degree of congruence of the two with the student. The more that gifted students of color are reflected in the curricula, the more likely they are to appreciate the course content and engage their gifted teachers and classmates. As part of a larger study, Ford (1995) interviewed 43 gifted, African American students in Grades 6 through 9 about their academic needs, interests, likes, and dislikes. Specifically, 41% of the students agreed or strongly agreed that "I get tired of learning about White people in class"; 87% agreed or strongly agreed that "I get more interested in school when we learn about Black people"; and all the African American interviewees supported the statement "I want to learn more about Black people in school." In addition, a substantial number of the African American interviewees suggested that many public schools are doing the bare minimum, if anything, as it relates to multicultural education. For example, one African American male stated
You get tired of learning about the same White people and the same things. We need to broaden our horizons and learn about other people, even other countries. The White people are just trying to advance other White people and leave Blacks behind and ignorant.... I feel like being in the class more when I learn about Blacks and my heritage. It gives me encouragement and lets me know that I have rights. Its helps to improve my grades. Learning about White people doesn't help me know about myself.... I'd like to educate my children about my heritage when I get older. I want to feel good about who I am. Why shouldn't I want to learn more about Black people? (see Ford, 1995, p. 12)
Furthermore, the African American students' comments revealed their displeasure with and disinterest in traditional education and gifted education offered in their schools. The previous statement implied that the student believed that his education fell short in terms of cultural relevance, significance, and meaning. In addition, the students' comments revealed that they desired an education that was multicultural and that they sought self-affirmation, self-understanding, and self-empowerment from the curricula. Ford (1995) concluded that: (a) the gifted Black students sampled were not being educated to live in a racially and culturally diverse society (and neither were their White classmates); (b) the curricula did not enhance their racial and cultural identities; and (c) for some gifted African American students, school courses lacked relevance and meaning, thus, they were disinterested and unengaged. These negative attitudes toward this color-blind or culture-blind curricula may explain, in part, why African American students are represented disproportionately among underachievers, low achievers, and dropouts (Ford, 1996; Harmon, 2002). The lack of educational relevance can decrease students' motivation and interest in school. This disinterest in school cannot be negated, ignored, and minimized by teachers, school counselors, and administrators. What follows is a framework for integrating multicultural education and gifted education. We integrate the best from what both fields have to offer.
A Multicultural Gifted Education Framework
The framework described herein was created by Ford and Harris (1999). They relied extensively on the models of Banks (1993) and Bloom (1956). Ford and Harris (1999) intersected or connected what have, heretofore, been parallel curricula models in education. Bloom's (1956) Taxonomy comprised six levels of thinking. This classification is often dichotomized as "low level" (e.g., knowledge, comprehension, and application) to "high level" (e.g., analysis, synthesis, and evaluation; see Table 1). The lowest levels are exemplified by rote learning and limited transference of learning. Students are taught facts, asked to recall information, and then asked to apply what they have learned in a limited fashion (e.g., make a timeline). These levels tend to be teacher directed, leaving little room for students' initiative and imagination; much of this level is convergent thinking. At the higher levels, students are required to explore, examine, critique, and combine what they have learned. This more child-centered approach encourages students to hypothesize or predict and be creative in their efforts and with their products, more indicative of divergent thinking (1) Teachers who hold high expectations of students of color, who believe that students of color are gifted, and who want to challenge students of color, endeavor to teach at the highest levels. Thus, many teachers in gifted education and in high-achieving classrooms utilize Bloom's Taxonomy or some other model that focuses on higher level thinking skills and problem solving (Colangelo & Davis, 1997; Davis & Rimm, 1997).
Few publications and curricula in gifted education have a multicultural focus. Thus, we present the Banks' (1993) conceptual framework of multicultural education in some depth. Banks and Banks (1993) defined multicultural education as
An educational reform movement designed to change the total educational environment so that students from diverse racial and ethnic groups, both gender groups, exceptional students, and students from each social-class group will experience equal educational opportunities in schools, colleges and universities (p. 359).
Banks (1993, 1997) identified four levels of ways to infuse multicultural content into the curriculum (see Table 2). Like Bloom's model, Banks' framework is also hierarchical. In Level 1, the Contributions Approach, educators focus on discrete elements (e.g., holidays, heroes, etc.) of students of color. This focus is the most frequently adopted and extensively used approach to multicultural education in the schools (Banks, 1993). An important characteristic of this approach is that the traditional, ethnocentric curriculum remains unchanged in its basic structure, goals, and salient characteristics. Students are introduced to minority heroes, such as Martin Luther King, Jr., Caesar Chavez, Pocahontas, and Sitting Bull. These individuals, however, are usually discussed in relation to White heroes, such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. Furthermore, individuals who challenged the predominant culture's ideologies, values, and conceptions, and advocated for radical social, political, and economic reforms, are often ignored in this approach. As a result, Martin Luther King, Jr. is more likely to be mentioned than Malcolm X, or Booker T. Washington is more likely to be discussed than W. E. B. DuBois. Subsequently, students acquire a distorted or incomplete view of history and reality.
Another characteristic of this low-level approach is that cultural traditions, foods, music, and dance may be discussed, but little if any attention is given to their meaning, impact, and significance to students of color. What is the significance of Kwanzaa to African Americans? Why do Hispanic populations celebrate Cinco de Mayo? Why might Native Americans oppose Thanksgiving? Why do different racial groups in the United States have their own national anthem? Why do various cultural groups celebrate different holidays and celebrations than traditional ones? Why do they eat different foods? These issues would not be addressed at this stage. Also, ethnic content is limited primarily to special days, weeks, and months related to different students of color. Students learn little to nothing about the event, group, or individuals being celebrated. The Contributions Approach is cosmetic. More specifically, it provides teachers with a quick, nonthreatening way to integrate the curricula, and teachers themselves can adopt this approach without knowing much about racially and culturally diverse groups. This approach also reinforces stereotypes about students of color, while using safe, nonthreatening heroes and heroines found acceptable to the White culture.
In the Additive Approach, Level 2, the content, concepts, themes, and perspectives of students of color are added to the curricula without changing the overall structure. For instance, teachers may add a book, unit, or course to the curricula that focuses on students of color or diverse topics. Although the content changes slightly, there is little restructuring of the curricula relative to purposes and characteristics. Students of color learn little of their own history, and White students learn little of the history and significant contributions of other groups as they relate to their contributions to American society. For instance, students of color reading White Socks Only, I Hate English!, The House on Mango Street, Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, The Color Purple, or The Cay lack the concepts, content background, and emotional maturity to understand, appreciate, respect, and cope effectively with the concepts and issues discussed in these books. Specifically, students of color reading about Malcolm X are not required to understand the Black Nationalist Movement. They do not analyze racial identity and may not compare the philosophies of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. Likewise, students of color fail to discuss events of the 1960s with the current social and cultural conditions. The Additive Approach fails to help students of color view society from diverse perspectives and to understand the ways that the histories of the nation's diverse racial, cultural, ethnic, and religious groups are interconnected (Banks & Banks, 1993, p. 202). In essence, this superficial approach requires little commitment, time, effort, training, and rethinking the instructions and curricula.
In Level 3, the Transformational Approach, two types of changes occur. In one instance, the structure of the curriculum changes to enable students to view concepts, issues, events, and themes from the perspectives of students of color. Different from the previous levels, students often see changes in the basic assumptions, goals, nature, and structure of the curriculum. The second fundamental change is that students are provided with the knowledge and skills to better understand the perspectives of students of color (e.g., empathy). Essentially, students of color are informed and empowered. Banks and Banks (1993, 1995) recommended that the curriculum not focus on the ways that students of color have contributed to mainstream society and culture. Instead, teachers need to focus on how the common U.S. culture and society emerged from a complex synthesis and interaction of the diverse cultural elements that make up the nation. Unlike the lower levels just described, this approach requires extensive or significant: (a) curriculum revision, (b) changes in teacher preparation, (c) changes in student thinking, and (d) time, effort, and commitment.
To illustrate, we will use the Trail of Tears. To increase the depth of students' understanding regarding this event, it is important that they have school and nonschool experiences that promote empathy (not sympathy). For instance, students of color may participate in a simulation on the Trail of Tears and hold in-depth discussions about the rationale for and injustices of this event from multiple perspectives. Lessons are presented in which Native Americans are portrayed as helpless and passive, or as the reverse (savage and revengeful). For an assignment, students might be asked to write a journal entry describing the horrendous experiences faced by dislocated and homeless Native Americans. Students acquire, therefore, the cognitive tools and insights to walk in the shoes of captive and otherwise marginalized people.
In Level 4, the Social Action Approach, teachers help students to make decisions about important social issues and take action to help solve them. Students are not socialized to accept the status quo, or mainstream ideologies, practices, and institutions. Instead, students feel empowered and are proactive; they are provided with the knowledge, values, and skills necessary to initiate or participate in social change. Self-examination becomes central in this approach through value analysis, decision making, problem solving, and social action skills (note that these skills are at the higher levels of Bloom's taxonomy). For example, in examining issues related to prejudice and discrimination, students develop strategies and plans to improve race relations. While increasing their knowledge about cultural diversity, students of color acquire an ethic of social justice; their sense of personal independence, social interdependence, personal responsibility, and social responsibility increase, as do interest, engagement, motivation and learning (Gay, 1993, 1997). Unfortunately, this approach is least likely to be adopted by educators, primarily because teachers lack formal training, experience, understanding, and personal knowledge of other racial and cultural groups (e.g., histories, values, beliefs, customs, etc.).
Ford and Harris (1999) created Table 3 to guide the development of questions, experiences, and products. It serves as a conceptual framework for infusing multicultural content into the curriculum. The table contains definitions or descriptions for each particular level of the matrix. For example, at the knowledge--contributions level, students are taught and know facts about cultural artifacts, events, groups, and other cultural elements. At the application--transformation level, students are asked to and can apply their understanding of important concepts and themes from different perspectives. At the synthesis--social action level, students create a plan of action to address a social or cultural issue; they seek important social change.
From Theory to Practice: Putting the Conceptual Framework to Use
Multicultural content is often limited to language arts, history, or social studies. However, educators must realize that multicultural education can be effectively integrated into all subject areas--mathematics, science, language arts, physical education, social studies and history, art, consumer science, dance, theatre, foreign language, and more. Table 4 applies the matrix using the topic of multicultural music. At the knowledge--contributions level, students are asked to name three songs that were popular among slaves. At the analysis--transformation level, students are asked to imagine being enslaved and write a song about this feeling. At the analysis-additive level, students explain the main idea or message of a multicultural song they have heard. At the synthesis--social action level, students convert a multicultural song into a play and perform it for the school. Other multicultural gifted education lessons appear in Ford and Harris (1999).
For teachers to provide an effective multicultural gifted curriculum for culturally diverse students, it is necessary for them to become culturally competent. Becoming culturally competent requires teachers to demonstrate knowledge of the history of students of color, societal racism, language, affirmation of minority students, multicultural education, and the role of community and family (Harmon, 2002). Culturally competent teachers possess self-awareness and self-understanding, cultural awareness and understanding, social responsiveness and responsibility, and are able to provide appropriate teaching techniques and strategies. They recognize the differences between their students and themselves and strive to become nonjudgmental (Ford, 1996; Ford & Harris, 1999).
Culturally competent teachers develop meaningful relationships with their students of color. They demonstrate social responsiveness and responsibility by increasing racial harmony within their classrooms, decreasing the negative beliefs and attitudes of White students toward minority students, and demanding respect for individual differences (Ford, 1996). Gifted education teachers who are culturally competent recognize institutional barriers that prevent students of color from obtaining an equal education. They have an understanding of how traditional practices of education often conflict with the values of gifted students of color. Gifted teachers engage students by providing a multicultural curriculum utilizing culturally congruent teaching methods so that they are able to help them in their understanding of concepts and content (Harmon, 2002).
Summary and Implications
The conceptual framework presented in this article does not solve or resolve the numerous challenges inherent in attempting new undertakings. However, it does provide a developing framework for gifted education teachers and other educators (e.g., counselors, administrators, etc.) to integrate central concepts and principles from both gifted education and multicultural education. The nation is diverse and so must be the educational experiences of students of color so that they are equipped to thrive as leaders in the next century. Several assumptions and principles guided this article. First, students of any age and from any cultural group can benefit from multicultural education. Likewise, all students can solve problems and think at higher levels in more sophisticated ways (Treffinger, Young, Nassab, & Wittig, 2004). All students, even gifted students of color, need to be challenged, to have their ideas stretched, and thoughts tested.
A second assumption is that integrating multiculturalism into gifted education presents additional opportunities for students of color to become critical thinkers and responsible citizens, a goal of many schools. Specifically, when the curriculum targets the transformation and social levels as described by Banks (1993, 1997), students of color are better prepared to meet their goals. A third assumption is that multicultural education empowers all students, especially students of color, by giving them mirrors to see themselves reflected in gifted education. This self-reflection increases their connection to the curriculum and their identification with what is being taught. It also gives White students windows to look into the world and see people from other cultures, namely from the perspective of their contributions and accomplishments (Ford & Harris, 1999). A fourth assumption is that effective multicultural education, like gifted education, takes commitment, time, and formal preparation. Thus, educators must be proactive and seek substantive and ongoing preparation in multicultural education. A fifth assumption is that the works of Bloom (1956) and Banks (1993, 1997) offer opportunities for schools to target excellence and equity, thereby strengthening our school system's educational programs. Finally, multicultural gifted education is prescriptive--it meets the needs and interests of students of color, while also offering important benefits to other student groups. If the voices of students of color, in this case gifted students, are valued, then teachers, counselors, and administers will listen to them, respect them, and address their needs. Multicultural education is preparation for life.
Table 1
Bloom's Taxonomy: Description and Possible Products
Description Sample of Possible
Products
Evaluation Students critique, judge, Survey, study,
research topics, issues, report, give
events, etc. opinion with
support
Synthesis Students combine ideas, Poem, song, cartoon,
events, etc., to make book, simulation
something new or unique,
to make a new whole.
Analysis Students examine, analyze, Venn diagram,
compare and contrast, literature review,
predict, consider opinion
pros and cons.
Application Students use the information Draw, timeline,
learned, students apply chart, graph
learning.
Comprehension Students demonstrate their Define, recall,
understanding of what has retell, paraphrase
been taught; they explain;
retell in their own words.
Knowledge Students learn facts and basic List, restate, repeat
information; rote learning
Table 2
Four Approaches to Integrating Multicultural
Content Into the Curriculum
Approach Description Examples
Contributions Heroes, cultural Artifacts from diverse
components, holidays, groups and individuals
and other discrete are studied without
elements related to attention of their
diverse groups are meaning and significance
added to the curriculum (e.g., totem poles).
on special days,
occasions, and
celebrations.
Additive Content, concepts, themes, Adding nonthreatening
and perspectives are books, people, and
added to the curriculum materials to the lesson.
without changing its Not giving the students
structure. the background knowledge
to understand the books
or materials.
Adding a unit on a diverse
group without focusing
on the group in other
units.
Leaving the core
curriculum intact,
but adding an ethnic
studies course as an
elective.
Transformation The basic goals, Units describe the meaning
structure, and nature of events, issues, etc.,
of the curriculum are to all groups involved.
changed to enable All voices and
students to view perspectives are heard.
concepts, events, Alternative explanations
issues, problems, are explored,
and themes from the particularly that
perspectives of diverse of minority groups.
groups. Teachers target student
Students become more understanding, respect,
empathetic by viewing and empathy.
events from multiple Students explore values
perspectives. (theirs and others) and
the impact of values on
the decisions people
make.
Social Action Students identify Students study prejudice
important social and discrimination in
problems and issues, their school and take
gather pertinent data, action to improve race
clarify their values relations.
on the issues, make Students study the
decisions, and take treatment of diverse
reflective actions groups and take action
to help resolve the to redress inequities.
issues or problem.
Approach Strengths Weaknesses
Contributions Provides a quick and Little attention is
easy way to put devoted to the cultures
ethnic content into in which the artifacts
the curriculum. are embedded.
Gives ethnic heroes Results in a superficial
visibility in the understanding of ethnic
curriculum, alongside cultures.
mainstream heroes. Focuses on the lifestyles
Most frequently adopted and artifacts of ethnic
in schools. groups; reinforces
stereotypes and
misperceptions.
Mainstream criteria used
to select heroes and
cultural elements for
inclusion in the
curriculum.
Additive Makes it possible to add Reinforces the idea that
ethnic content into the ethnic history and
curriculum without culture are not integral
changing its structure. parts of the U.S.
Can be implemented within mainstream culture.
the existing curriculum. Students view ethnic
groups from a
Eurocentric perspective;
fails to help students
understand how the
dominant culture and
ethnic cultures are
interconnected and
interrelated.
Requires little
commitment and
professional
development.
Transformation Enables students to Requires substantial
understand the complex curriculum revision,
ways in which diverse in-service training,
groups participated in and the identification
the formation of the and development of
U.S. society and materials written from
culture. the perspectives of
Helps reduce racial and diverse groups.
ethnic encapsulation. Staff development for the
Enables diverse groups institutionalization of
to see their cultures, this approach must be
ethos, and perspectives ongoing and substantive.
in the school
curriculum.
Gives students a balanced
view of the nature and
development of U.S.
culture and society.
Helps to empower minority
groups.
Social Action Enables students to Requires a considerable
improve their thinking, amount of curriculum
value analysis, planning and materials.
decision-making skills, Longer in duration than
and social-action more traditional
skills. teaching units.
Enables students to May focus on problems and
improve their data- issues considered
gathering, social- controversial.
actions, and problem- Students may be unable to
solving skills. take meaningful actions
Helps students to develop that contribute to the
a sense of political resolution of some
efficacy. social issues and
Helps students to improve problems.
their skills in working
with diverse groups.
Source: Banks (1993, 1997)
Table 3
Ford-Harris Matrix of Multicultural Gifted Education:
Definition of Categories
Knowledge Comprehension
Contributions Students are taught Students show an
and know facts understanding of
about cultural information about
artifacts, events, cultural
groups, and other artifacts,
cultural elements. groups, etc.
Additive Students are taught Students are taught
and know and can
concepts and understand
themes about cultural concepts
cultural groups. and themes.
Transformation Students are given Students are taught
information on to understand and
important cultural can demonstrate
elements, groups, an understanding
etc., and can of important
understand this cultural concepts
information from and themes from
different different
perspectives. perspectives.
Social Action Based on Based on their
information on understanding of
cultural artifacts, important
etc., students concepts and
make themes, students
recommendations make
for social action. recommendations
for social
action.
Application Analysis
Contributions Students are asked Students are taught
to and can apply to and can
information analyze (e.g.,
learned on compare and
Cultural artifacts, contrast)
events, etc. information about
cultural
artifacts,
groups, etc.
Additive Students are Students are taught
required to and to and can
can apply analyze important
information cultural concepts
learned about and themes.
cultural concepts
and themes.
Transformation Students are asked Students are taught
to and can apply to and can
their examine
understanding of important
important cultural concepts
concepts and and themes from
themes from more than one
different perspective.
perspectives.
Social Action Students are asked Students are
to and can apply required to and
their can analyze
understanding of social and
important social cultural issues
and cultural from different
issues; they make perspectives;
recommendations they take action
for and take on these issues.
action on these
issue.
Synthesis Evaluation
Contributions Students are Students are taught
required to and to and can
can create a new evaluate facts
product from the and information
information on based on cultural
cultural artifacts, artifacts,
groups, etc. groups, etc.
Additive Students are asked Students are taught
to and can to and can
synthesize critique cultural
important concepts and
information on themes.
cultural concepts
and themes.
Transformation Students are Students are taught
required to and to and can
can create a evaluate or judge
product based on important
their new cultural concepts
perspective or the and themes from
perspective of different
another group. viewpoints (e.g.,
minority group).
Social Action Students create a Students critique
plan of action to important social
address a social and cultural
and cultural issues, and seek
issue(s); they seek to make national
important social and/or
change. international
change.
Source: Ford and Harris (1999).
Table 4
Applying the Bloom-Banks Matrix to Multicultural Music
Knowledge Comprehension
Contributions Students name five Students retell the
songs that were significant events
popular among that occurred in a
slaves. (1) multicultural
song.
Additive Students look up the Students explain the
definitions of key main idea or
words in a message of a
multicultural multicultural song
song. they have heard. (1)
Transformation Students sing a song Students share at
that Harriet least one reason
Tubman or different groups
another slave felt the need to
might have sung have their own
after escaping to national anthem.
freedom. (1)
Social Action Students sing a Students read a
multicultural song biography of a
to younger famous diverse
students. (1) musician to
another class and
explain the
significant
accomplishments
of the musician.
Application Analysis
Contributions Students find Students compare
musical the rhythm
instruments that (melody, scores,
are unique to a instruments, etc.)
diverse cultural of national
group; or find anthems from two
multicultural different groups.
versions of
instruments used
in the United
States
Additive Students categorize Students identify
spirituals as work, and compare
celebration/ themes found
ceremonial, or play among two or
songs. (1) more slave
spirituals. (1)
Transformation Students draw a Students imagine
picture to being enslaved
illustrate the and write a song
primary message about this feeling.
of a multicultural
song.
Social Action Students contact Students write an
local radio editorial
stations and explaining how
request them to slave songs are
play a particular similar to
multicultural contemporary
song. gospel songs. (1)
Synthesis Evaluation
Contributions Students translate a Students research
song from one the origin and
language to history of a
another language. multicultural
song, including its
author.
Additive Students create a Students survey
poem based on a classmates about
multicultural song their favorite song
or diverse from a diverse
musician individual or
group, and tally
the results by type
of music.
Transformation Students brainstorm Students share their
reasons that songs opinion on the
are important to need for diverse
people. groups to have
their own national
anthem. They
seek support for
their position.
Social Action Students create a Students convert a
song to honor a multicultural song
diverse hero and into a play and
share it with perform it for the
classmates. school (1)
(1) Two excellent books (accompanied by a CD of slave songs
and spirituals) are Slaves No More and No Man Can Hinder Me.
Notes
(1.) We are reminded of the motto: "Teach children what to think and you limit them to your ideas. Teach children how to think, and their ideas are unlimited." (Thinking Works Press motto)
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Donna Y. Ford is the Betts Chair of Education and Human Development at The Peabody College of Education. James L. Moore III is an Assistant Professor in the College of Education at The Ohio State University. Deborah A. Harmon is an Assistant Professor in the College of Education at Eastern Michigan University.
Requests for reprints can be sent to James L. Moore III, College of Education, The Ohio State University, 1945 N. High Street., Columbus, OH 43210. E-mail: moore.1408@osu.edu
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