Applying Learner-Centered Principles to middle school education

This article draws on a goal perspective of motivation to examine the use of the Learned-Centered Psychological Principles (LCPs) for improving the academic engagement and learning of middle school students. Using survey data from 2,200 middle school students from diverse communities across the United States, the findings indicate many important motivational benefits of learner-centered practices for young adolescents. Specifically, students reported more positive forms of motivation and greater academic engagement when they perceived their teachers were using learner-centered practices that involve caring, establishing higher order thinking, honoring student voices, and adapting instruction to individual needs. Suggestions for creating a learner-centered middle school classroom are highlighted.

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   My learning problems started in middle school. When
   I was in elementary school, my classes were small and
   I received a lot of attention from my teachers. I was a
   fast learner, and I was placed in AG classes for math
   and science. When I went to middle school, my teachers
   no longer seemed concerned for me. My grades
   went from As to Cs and Ds. My teachers did not notice
   ... they just kept teaching. (Ann, age 14)

THE MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS are a critical turning point in young people's lives. Early adolescence is an important time for youth to adjust to a rapidly changing body, learn new cognitive abilities, form positive social relationships, develop a positive sense of self, and forge a personal code of ethics and morality (Eccles & Midgley, 1989; Jackson & Davis, 2000). Schools, along with peers and families, play an important role in fostering young peoples' healthy development through the adolescent years. In a groundbreaking report, Turning Points: Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989), a group of educators, researchers, policy makers and media leaders concluded that middle schools are "potentially society's most powerful force to recapture millions of youths adrift" (p. 32).

Unfortunately, the story of 14-year-old Ann is a common one. Numerous reports and studies during the last 20 years have documented declines in self-esteem, motivation, achievement, and emotional well-being during the middle school years (Anderman, Maehr, & Midgley, 1999; Harter, Whitesall, & Kowalski, 1992). Early adolescence is a difficult transition for most young people, and these changes are often attributed to the multiple biological and social changes they are experiencing. However, Eccles and Midgley (1989) were among the first to suggest that mismatches between adolescents' developmental needs and the middle school environment may also contribute to declines in self-esteem, motivation, and achievement. During early adolescence, young people are becoming more knowledgeable and skillful, more independent, and more focused on peer relations and social status. Relationships with adults and friends become increasingly important as adolescents learn new social roles and adjust to physical changes. Yet evidence suggests that the environment in middle schools, when compared with elementary schools, is less cognitively demanding, more competitive and evaluative, more formal and impersonal, and more structured with fewer opportunities for choice and decision making (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989; Eccles & Midgley, 1989). In short, this analysis suggests that when adolescents' developmental needs are not addressed, it can lead to negative changes in academic and emotional well-being during the middle school transition and beyond.

The publication of several reports on the condition of middle school education, including Turning Points, prompted many states and school districts to initiate a series of reforms during the last 20 years. Many middle schools have now implemented block scheduling, advisory teams, looping programs, interdisciplinary teaching, and schools-within-a-school structures. As a result of these efforts, studies suggest that the social environment of middle schools is improving (Jackson & Davis, 2000; Lipsitz, Mizell, Jackson, & Austin, 1997). However, some critics believe that reform efforts have not gone far enough in improving the quality of instruction for middle school students. As Lipsitz and her colleagues (1997) concluded, many middle schools today are "warmer, happier, and more peaceful places for students and adults ... [yet most schools] have not moved off this plateau and taken the critical next step to develop students who perform well academically, with the intellectual wherewithal to improve their life conditions" (p. 535). To take these next steps, reform models are needed that help educators create school environments that are both intellectually challenging and supportive.

This article draws on a motivational framework for examining the use of the Learner-Centered Psychological Principals (LCPs) (American Psychological Association, 1997) for improving the academic engagement and achievement of middle school students. As McCombs (this issue) explains, the LCPs have the potential to benefit learners of all ages. However, with their focus on the unique needs of learners, these teaching practices may be particularly beneficial for young adolescents. Findings described in this article support this assertion.